Library & Information Science, Course 250: Instructional Strategies.
Dr. David Loertscher
b21.html
Source: http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~ahayden/seeking.html

The term information seeking behavior has been used in the research

literature about scientists and researchers since the 1950's. The current

emphasis on user needs has prompted librarians to investigate the concept of

information seeking behavior, drawing upon models from the disciplines of

psychology, sociology, and communication theory.

It is important to examine information seeking models as what students

actually do when searching for information may be very different from what

librarians think the students do. Theoretical models of information seeking,

including both those based on empirical research and reflection on

experience, can assist librarians in creating a library and information

skills curriculum which responds directly to the students' needs. Attempting

to fit a curriculum to the students' processes is a better approach than to

change the students' processes and strategies to fit the curriculum. This

strategy, for example, has been used in the field of literacy. Researchers

and teachers examined, both empirically and qualitatively, the processes and

strategies that young children use when learning to read. These strategies

and processes were used to create an early literacy curriculum (such as

whole language combined with a phonics component) which responds directly to

the needs of the learners.

Understanding the process of information seeking can help to answer

questions such as: what should the library and information skills curriculum

encompass; what specific skills and processes should be taught; what are the

appropriate teaching methods; and what is the relationship of the library

and information skills curriculum to the academic curriculum. Examining the

strategies, processes, successes and failures that students use and

experience when searching for information, can evolve into a library and

information skills curriculum which guides the students towards information

literacy.

Information Seeking Model

A popular model during the 1980's is presented. This model illustrates the

relationships between the concepts of user, need, uses and user behavior. It

is adapted from Wilson's (1981) figure of Interrelationships among areas in

the field of user studies and Krikelas' (1983) model of Information seeking

behavior.

The model suggests that the user perceives a need in the context of the

user's environment. That is, in a given environment or event (e.g.

university course) the user will perceive an information need (research a

paper). The perceived need will lead the user to search for information,

making demands upon a variety of information sources. These information

sources include information systems (university libraries and public

libraries); human resources (experts, professors, colleagues); and other

resources (personal library, media). Information seeking behavior may lead

to either a success or a failure. If successful, information is located

which will be used. This may result in the satisfaction or non-satisfaction

of the original perceived need. Satisfaction occurs when the located

information has been analyzed and satisfies the original need.

Non-satisfaction occurs when the information does not satisfy the original

need. With non-satisfaction, the information seeking process may be repeated

until satisfaction occurs. A failure to find information may result in the

process of information seeking being continued. Krikelas (1983) stated that:

information seeking begins when someone perceives that the current

state of knowledge is less than that needed to deal with some issue (or

problem). The process ends when that perception no longer exists (p.

7).

That is, the information seeking process ends when the perceived need has

been satisfied.

Each of the steps that one uses while going through the information seeking

behavior process, as outline in the model, may be referred to as strategies.

Kuhlthau (1992) defines a strategy as "a tactic used to seek information or

to work through a stage of the search process" (p. 40). That is, the entire

search process is composed of strategies. A strategy may be asking a friend

or professor for information (human resources), visiting the university

library (information systems), or using one's personal library (other

resources). Some information seeking behavior may require only one strategy

such as using the university library. When all the needed information is

found, which results in satisfaction of the user's information need, the

search process is ended. Some information seeking behavior may require many

strategies with the user calling upon a variety of information sources

because the information need is not thoroughly satisfied.

This model does not define the complexity of the research process.

Information seeking is recursive, but the model suggests that it is linear;

an information seeker moves from one stage to the next. Although the model

does imply that the information found is processed, the aspects of analysis,

synthesis and evaluation are not of prime important. It simply suggests that

once the information need is satisfied by finding information, the search is

over. It is also apparent that the model does not allow for the original

need to be re-defined in light of information found. Rather, information

must fit the original need otherwise it is discarded (resulting in

dissatisfaction). The model does not allow for growth and learning on the

user's part as she engages in the information seeking process. The model

described is very similar to traditional library instruction as it focuses

solely on skills related to sources: location, accessing and using sources.

This model isolates library-dependent skills from other skills, such as

critical thinking and analysis, that are required in order to use

information effectively.

Information Search Process Model

Recently, new approaches to information seeking behaviours have emerged.

These new models centre on a process approach to library skills and

information seeking. Such an approach is not dependent upon particular

sources or libraries. Rather, the emphasis is on developing transferable

cognitive skills that increase students' effectiveness in using information.

Kuhlthau's (1992) model of the information seeking process is such an

approach. Her model provides a theoretical framework for information

seeking. This model is important as it is one of the few that is based on

actual formal research. Other investigators have proposed models but these

have been developed based on the authors' years of practice and experience.

It must be readily noted that the fact that other proposed information

seeking and library skill models are not empirically based does not make

them less important or useful (especially in light of the possibility of the

reflective and phenomenological means of investigation) but, as Eisenberg

(1992) points out "it does point out a glaring need for verification of

process frameworks in real settings as well as the desirability of basing

process frameworks on empirically derived models of cognition".

Kuhlthau (1992) developed a model of the information search process from

common patterns which emerged from her longitudinal investigation of high

school students' information seeking behaviors. Her model encompasses the

development of thoughts about a research topic, the feelings associated with

the search process, and the actions of seeking and using sources. The model

goes beyond the mere mechanics of information seeking; it incorporates three

realms: the affective (feeling), the cognitive (thoughts), and the physical

(actions and strategies). These realms are common to each stage of the

search process, as described below.

Stage 1: Initiation

This is the stage when a person first recognizes that information is needed

to complete an assignment or solve a problem. It is similar to the

information seeking behavior model previously discussed, where the user

identifies a perceived information need in a given environment.

Stage 2: Selection

The task in this stage is to identify and select a general topic to be

investigated or the approach to be pursued.

Stage 3 Exploration

The task in this stage is to investigate information on the general topic in

order to expand one's personal understanding as well as to provide a focus

for the topic. This stage involves gathering information which is general to

the topic, rather than information which is specific or especially

pertinent.

Stage 4 Formulation

From the information gathered during the pre-focus exploration stage, the

user now forms a focused perspective on the topic on the basis of the

information found. A clear focus enables the user to move to the next stage.

As the students' understanding of the topic grows, the information search

can be more focused and direct.

Stage 5: Collection

The user interacts with information systems (e.g., librarians, experts,

friends, etc.) effectively and efficiently. Information specifically related

to the defined focused topic is gathered. This stage encompasses the

majority of the model, as proposed by Wilson and Krieklas.

Stage 6 Search Closure or Presentation

The task is to complete the search and to prepare the written document. The

search closure may be completed because all the necessary information was

located, or because the deadline for the paper is near. In this case, not

all the information required may have been retrieved.

Kuhlthau's model is based on an intensive longitudinal study of a group of

high school students. She verified the process model by conducting

additional studies: two studies which used larger and more diverse library

users in different information environments, as well as two longitudinal

studies of small groups of students. She determined that the model is valid

across diverse user groups as well as appropriate for describing the search

process longitudinally.

Kuhlthau's model is important as it suggests that the user is an active

participant in the information search process. The student's knowledge grows

as she interacts with the information. More importantly, cognitive processes

are involved in information seeking. Throughout the process, the student

engages in cognitive strategies such as brain storming, contemplating,

predicting, consulting, reading, choosing, identifying, defining, and

confirming. However, Kuhlthau's model does not seem to incorporate

manipulation of the information; that is, analyzing, digesting, organizing,

synthesizing, and evaluating the found information. Turning information and

data into knowledge is not assumed in the model. The model, however, does

highlight that affective feelings such as apprehension, uncertainty,

confusion, anxiety, anticipation, doubt, optimism, and confidence interplay

as the search for information proceeds.

Kuhlthau stresses that students move through each stage sequentially. The

stages of initiation, selection and exploration assist the student in

exploring and identifying a topic of interest. The three stages lead the

student from a general topic to a specific one. These stages of preliminary

initiation, selection, and exploration are not evident in the first model

discussed. Similar to the first model, though, Kuhlthau's model focuses on

the search process, the acts associated with finding information, rather

than how to use, synthesize, and evaluate the found information.

Big Six Skills Model

Kuhlthau's model closely resembles that of Eisenberg and Berkowitz (1992).

They proposed the Big Six Skills which represents a general approach to

information problem-solving, consisting of six logical steps or stages. The

order of the stages changes with each search venture, but each stage is

necessary in order to achieve a successful resolution of an information

problem.

The Big Six Skills involves:

1. Task Definition: The student needs to define the problem from an

information point of view. He needs to define what needs to be done,

what information needs to be gathered, etc. prior to embarking on

information seeking strategies. Eisenberg and Berkowitz maintain that

most people spend very little time defining their topic. They plunge

right into the information seeking strategies (Step 2), rather than

reflecting on the type of information that they need to find. By

clearly defining and understanding the information problem, students

can move more efficiently towards solutions. This stage involves

Kuhlthau's initiation and selection stages.

2. Information Seeking Strategies: Once the student has clearly defined

the information problem, then he must decide which and what information

sources are the most appropriate to solve the task. Information seeking

strategies involve making decisions. In today's information age, the

question students should ask themselves is "What are my best strategies

for finding information on this topic?", rather than asking "Can I find

information on this topic?". Students need to determine when it is

appropriate to search the Internet for information, and when it is

appropriate to ask a professor for information. Similar to the model

proposed earlier (Wilson and Krieklas), information sources include

human resources, information resources and other resources. When

considering information seeking strategies, students need to consider

various criteria when selecting the information source, including

accuracy, reliability, ease of use, availability, comprehensibility,

and authority.

3. Location and Access: Location and access is the implementation of the

information seeking strategy. These skills involve use of access tools

(bibliographic databases and print indexes), arrangement of materials

in libraries, parts of a book; strategies for searching an online

catalogue. Traditionally library instruction programs at universities

have focused on location and access skills. They teach specific skills

needed to use specific access tools. The problem with teaching specific

skills is that students lack an understanding of how these skills

transfer to other new situations. For example, teaching commands

related to searching OVID databases. However, when the student

approaches a SilverPlatter database, the specific skills are not

transferable because the searching mechanism is different.

The Big Six Skills focuses on a problem-solving approach. Students are

taught specific skills after they have been provided with instruction

focusing on the overall information problem-solving process. Because

the approach is general, the skills are readily transferred to new

situations; for example, rather than focusing on the specific skills

needed to search OVID databases (such as typing CTRL U for searching an

author), students are taught about the generalities among databases

(such as most databases allow you to search for an author and combine

that with a recognized subject heading). By teaching a general

problem-solving approach, the students are better equipped to utilize

new and unique sources of information.

4. Use of Information: Once students have found the needed information,

they can employ skills to use the information. These skills involve

interacting, dialoguing, reading, listening, viewing, questioning, and

reflecting on the information. Students need to decide what is valuable

and extract the necessary information.

Kuhlthau's stages 3 and 5 are incorporated into Eisenberg and

Berkowtiz's stages 2, 3 and 4. These stages focus on finding and

locating information, and then using the information (i.e. reading and

extracting salient points).

5. Synthesis: Synthesis is the application of all information to the

defined task. Synthesis involves restructuring and repackaging the

information into a new and different form. Sometimes the synthesis of

information is straight-forward, such as communicating the

circumference of a circle. For other tasks such as writing a paper,

synthesis is a major undertaking. It involves combining information,

extracting salient details, reorganising and manipulating the

information. Synthesis, then, is turning the information found into

knowledge.

6. Evaluation: Evaluation is the examination and assessment of the

information problem solving process. It determines the effectiveness

and efficiency of the process. Evaluation determines whether the

information found met the defined task. Specific questions focus on was

the information problem solved; was the need met; was the situation

resolved. If the answer is no, then the process is re-initiated.

Evaluation involves reflecting on the information problem-solving

process itself. Students need to ask themselves if their process was

efficient, if they spent enough time or too much time, which strategies

were most effective and which ones were least effective. This

self-evaluation will lead to an awareness of the students' own

strengths and weaknesses, and can help in future information

problem-solving processes.

There are basic themes imbedded in the Big Six Skills information

problem-solving approach which have relevance to library and information

skills development. These themes help to highlight the advantages of using

the Big Six Skills process for teaching information problem-solving skills.

Themes include:

* The Big Six Skills is a general approach to information problem-solving

that can be applied to any information problem situation. Eisenberg and

Berkowitz are quick to point out that the Big Six Skills is not

applicable only to academic situations, but can be incorporated into

one's daily life. Using the process approach for purchasing a car or

considering a career change will help to make effective decisions.

* The Big Six Skills involves critical thinking and problem-solving.

Students are provided with the skills necessary to manipulate

information rather than to just consume it.

* Information problem-solving is not always a linear, step-by-step

process. The model based on Wilson and Krieklas suggested that

information seeking is a linear process; one step leads to the next.

Indeed, even Kuhlthau's model suggests linearity. The Big Six Skills

process, however, accommodates branching and jumping out of sequence.

It is very much a hypertext process. As one's knowledge of a subject

grows, different avenues and sources are opened and highlighted, and

need to be investigated. It is expected that gaps in the knowledge will

be identified as the found information is synthesized. This results in

going back and perhaps re-identifying the task or implementing new

information seeking strategies.

* The Big Six Skills provides a broad structure for library and

information skills curricula. Big Six Skills readily adapts to existing

library skills programs; it involves restructuring skills, objectives,

units and lessons within the framework of the model.

* The Big Six Skills approach is ideal for integrating skills instruction

with subject area curriculum. The Big Six Skills goal is not for

immediate results, but is to develop students' skills over a number of

years. The first objective is to gain an understanding of the overall

information problem-solving process, and then (the second objective)

increase specific skill competence. The programs works from a general

orientation to the specifics as the skills of the students and their

ability to cope with more complex information improves.

Eisenberg and Berkowitz's Big Six Skills seems to be the model which most

closely describes the actual information search process, as well as being a

model which can be easily adapted to teach the skills required to become an

information literate student and citizen. Certainly, underlying the model is

the aspect of information literacy, as previously discussed. The

researcher's book Information-Problem Solving provides guidance on how to

systematically implement a library and information skills curriculum which

leads to information literacy. "Library and information skills instruction

should always be implemented within a curriculum context" (Eisenberg and

Berkowitz, 1992, p. 43). The Big Six Skills instructional effort, therefore,

focuses on the intersection of library and information skills objectives,

and subject area curriculum objectives. Eisenberg and Berkowitz provide a

schematic picture of this interaction.

Is it possible for academic librarians to implement a library and

information skills curriculum which interacts and responds to the academic

curriculum. Currently, the academic librarian provides specific skill

instruction for specific academic courses, such as how to use Chemical

Abstracts for a Chemistry 250 class. The majority of the instructional

classes focus on location and access skills; they do not encompass the

entire information problem-solving process, as described by Eisenberg and

Berkowitz.

Academic librarians need to reflect on how to best provide an integrated

information and library skills curriculum. We need to question who is the

library community; we need to question how we can provide a responsible

curriculum that leads students towards information literacy.

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